A Comprehensive Overview of Assam's Past
Introduction to the History of Assam
Assam's history is a blend of various cultures—Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman (Sino-Tibetan), Tai, and Indo-Aryan—resulting from the convergence of people from the east, west, south, and north. Despite numerous invasions over centuries, Assam remained independent until the third Burmese invasion in 1821, followed by the British entry in 1824 during the First Anglo-Burmese War.
Assamese history draws from multiple sources. Medieval Assam's Ahom kingdom maintained chronicles called Buranjis, written in both Ahom and Assamese languages. The history of ancient Assam is derived from Kamarupa inscriptions found on rock, copper plates, and clay, along with royal grants issued by Kamarupa kings. Cultural and socio-religious insights come from the Kalika Purana and Yogini Tantra, believed to be composed in the region during early medieval and medieval times. The religious literature of the Neo-Vaishnavite movement, initiated by Sankaradeva, also serves as a crucial primary source.
The history of Assam is categorized into four periods. The ancient era began in the 4th century with Kamarupa's mention in Samudragupta's Allahabad pillar inscriptions and the establishment of the Kamarupa kingdom. The medieval era commenced with attacks from the Bengal Sultanate, starting with Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1206, as noted in the Kanai-boroxiboa rock inscription, following the fragmentation of the ancient kingdom and the emergence of medieval kingdoms and chieftainships. The colonial era started with British control after the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826, and the post-colonial era began in 1947 after India's independence. Medieval kingship narratives in Assam commonly link to Shaktism and the Kamakhya temple.
Prehistory
Paleolithic Cultures:
The earliest inhabitants, dating back to the Middle Pleistocene period (781,000 to 126,000 years ago), are found in the Rongram valley of Garo Hills. Paleolithic sites here feature handaxe-cleaver tools akin to the Abbevillio-Acheulean culture. Other Paleolithic sites exist in Daphabum, Lohit district, Arunachal Pradesh, with stone tools made from metamorphic rocks. Cave-based Paleolithic sites at Khangkhui in Ukhrul, Manipur, are from the Late Pleistocene period. Evidence of a microlithic culture exists in the Rongram Valley of Garo Hills, situated between Neolithic layers and virgin soil. These microliths are made of dolerite, differing from those elsewhere in India. Crude hand-made pottery suggests the microlithic people were hunters and food-gatherers.
Neolithic Cultures:
Early Neolithic cultures in the Garo hills, based on unifacially flaked hand-axes, show parallels with the Hoabinhian culture, suggesting this region was a connection point for Indian and Southeast Asian cultures. Late Neolithic cultures are associated with the dispersal of Mon Khmer-speaking people from Malaysia and the Ayeyarwady valley, and late Neolithic advancements in South China. Given the dating of these cultures to 4500–4000 BCE, Assam's sites are approximated to this period. These Neolithic sites are widespread but concentrated in hills and higher elevations, likely due to floods. These cultures practiced shifting cultivation, known as jhum, which some communities in the region still employ. Notable sites include Daojali Hading in Dima Hasao, Sarutaru in Kamrup district, and Selbagiri in the Garo Hills.
Metal Age:
Currently, no archaeological evidence of Copper-Bronze or Iron Age cultures exists in the region. This is puzzling, considering corresponding cultures have been found in Bengal and Southeast Asia. It is conjectured that metal age sites might exist but are yet to be discovered.
Megalithic Cultures:
Despite the apparent absence of a Metal Age, Assam exhibits a rich Megalithic culture, echoing the Iron Age Megalithic culture of South India. This culture appeared earlier than the late second millennium BCE and persists today among the Khasi and Naga people, showing affinity with Southeast Asia. The megalithic culture was a precursor to fertility cults, Shaktism, and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Ancient Assam (350–1206)
Assam's historical record begins in the 4th century with the establishment of Pushyavarman's Varman dynasty in the Kamarupa kingdom, marking the start of Ancient Assam. The kingdom extended from the Karatoya in the west to Sadiya in the east. This dynasty and the two subsequent ones traced their lineage to the mythical Narakasura. Under Bhaskaravarman in the 7th century, the kingdom reached its peak. Xuanzang, a Chinese traveler, visited his court and provided a significant account. Bhaskaravarman died without an heir, and control passed to Salasthamba, who founded the Mlechchha dynasty. After the Mlechchha dynasty's decline in the late 9th century, Brahmapala was elected king, establishing the Pala dynasty. The last Pala king was deposed by the Gaur king, Ramapala, in 1110. However, the next two kings, Timgyadeva and Vaidyadeva, though installed by the Gaur kings, largely governed independently and issued grants with the old Kamarupa seals. The collapse of subsequent kings and the emergence of independent kingdoms in the 12th century, replacing the Kamarupa kingdom, marked the end of the Kamarupa kingdom and the Ancient Assam period.
Medieval Assam (1206–1826)
The medieval period in Assam commenced with the "Kanai Baraxiboa" rock inscription of 1206, which also marked the first Muslim attack by Bakhtiyar Khilji.
In the mid-13th century, Sandhya, a king of Kamarupanagara, relocated his capital to Kamatapur, establishing the Kamata kingdom due to attacks by the Bengalis. The last Kamata kings, the Khens, were overthrown by Alauddin Hussain Shah in 1498. However, Hussain Shah and his successors struggled to consolidate their rule in the Kamata kingdom, primarily due to revolts by the Bhuyan chieftains, remnants of the Kamarupa administration, and other local groups. Soon after, in the early 16th century, Vishwa Singha of the Koch tribe founded the Koch dynasty in the Kamata kingdom. This dynasty flourished under his sons, Nara Narayan and Chilarai.
In eastern Assam, the Kachari kingdom (south bank of the Brahmaputra, central Assam) and the Chutiya kingdom (north bank of the Brahmaputra, eastern Assam) emerged, with some Bhuyan chiefs controlling the area west of the Chutiya kingdom. In the region between the Kachari and Chutiya kingdoms, a Shan group led by Sukaphaa established the Ahom kingdom. The 16th century was pivotal in the medieval period due to the consolidation of the Ahoms (who annexed the Bhutiya kingdom and pushed the Kachari kingdom westward from central Assam) in the east, the Koch in the west, and the growth of Ekasarana Dharma by Srimanta Sankardev. Following the death of Nara Narayan of the Koch dynasty in the late 16th century, the Kamata kingdom divided into Koch Bihar in the west and Koch Hajo in the east. The rivalry between these two kingdoms led to the former allying with the Mughals and the latter with the Ahoms. Much of the 17th century was dominated by Ahom-Mughal conflicts, with the Ahoms successfully fending off the expansive Mughals, famously in the Battle of Saraighat of 1671. These conflicts concluded in 1682 with the Mughal defeat at Itakhuli in Guwahati. The Ahom kingdom extended its western boundary to the Manas River, a border it maintained until 1826. Although the Ahom kingdom saw itself as the successor to the Kamarupa kingdom's glory and aimed to reach the Karatoya river, it never fully achieved this, though an Ahom general, Ton Kham, under Suhungmung, did reach the river once while pursuing a retreating invading army in the 16th century.
After reaching its peak, the Ahom kingdom faced internal challenges in the 18th century, briefly losing power to rebels during the Moamoria rebellion. Although the Ahoms regained control, problems persisted, leading to the Burmese invasion of Assam in the early 19th century. With the Burmese defeat in the First Anglo-Burmese War and the subsequent Treaty of Yandaboo, control of Assam passed to the British, marking the end of the Medieval period.
Colonial Assam (1826–1947)
British Annexation of Assam:
The First Anglo-Burmese War erupted in 1824. The British attacked the Burmese garrison in Assam, and by 1825, the Burmese were expelled. Under the Treaty of Yandabo, the Burmese Monarch Bagyidaw relinquished all claims on Assam. The British then gained control of the Brahmaputra Valley and began consolidating their rule. In 1830, the Kachari king Govinda Chandra was assassinated, which the British used as an opportunity to annex the Kachari kingdom in 1832. In 1833, the Ahom prince Purandar Singha was made a tributary ruler in Upper Assam. However, due to mismanagement and failure to pay regular revenue, the British annexed his kingdom in 1838. In 1835, the kingdom of Jaintia was also annexed. By 1842, the regions of Matak and Sadiya were annexed, and in 1854, the North Cachar Hill district, under Tularam Senapati's administration, was also incorporated into the British Empire, completing their conquest and consolidation of rule in Assam.
Colonial Rule:
Bengal Presidency (1826–1873):
Assam became part of the Bengal Presidency. The annexation of upper Assam was aided by successful tea manufacturing in 1837 and the establishment of the Assam Company in 1839. The Wasteland Rules of 1838 made it nearly impossible for natives to establish plantations. After liberalization in 1854, a land rush ensued. Chinese tea cultivation staff left Assam in 1843, with local labor, primarily from the Kachari group, taking over. From 1859, central Indian labor was imported for tea plantations. This labor, bound by unbreakable contracts, led to virtual slavery, with about 10% dying during transportation due to horrific conditions. The colonial government already held a monopoly on the opium trade. Immediate protests and revolts occurred. In 1828, Gomdhar Konwar revolted but was suppressed. In 1830, Dhananjoy Burhagohain, Piyali Phukan, and Jiuram Medhi revolted and were sentenced to death. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, rebel supporters offered non-cooperation, leading to the execution of Maniram Dewan and Piyali Baruah. In 1861, peasants in Nagaon gathered at Phulaguri for a "raiz mel" (people's assembly) to protest taxes on betel-nut and paan. Lt. Singer, an officer sent to confront them, was killed in a skirmish, and the protests were violently suppressed.
Chief Commissioner's Province (1874–1905):
In 1874, the Assam region was separated from the Bengal Presidency, Sylhet was added, and its status was elevated to a Chief Commissioner's Province with Shillong as its capital. Sylhet residents protested their inclusion in Assam. Assamese, which had been replaced by Bengali as the official language in 1837, was reinstated alongside Bengali. In 1889, oil discovery at Digboi led to an oil industry. During this period, Nagaon experienced starvation deaths and a decrease in the indigenous population, which was more than offset by immigrant labor. Colonialism was firmly established, with tea, oil, and coal-mining industries exerting increasing pressure on the lagging agricultural sector. Peasants, burdened by the opium monopoly and usury from money lenders, revolted again. Numerous "raiz mels" decided against paying taxes. Protests culminated in a bayonet charge at Patharughat in 1894, leaving around 140 dead, followed by violent repression including torture and property destruction or looting. In 1903, the Assam Association was formed, with Manik Chandra Baruah as its first secretary.
Eastern Bengal and Assam under Lt. Governor (1906–1912):
Bengal was partitioned, and East Bengal was added to the Chief Commissioner's Province. This new region, governed by a Lt. Governor, had its capital in Dhaka. It featured a 15-member legislative council, with Assam holding two recommended (not elected) seats by rotating groups of public bodies. The Partition of Bengal was strongly opposed in Bengal, and Assamese people were also displeased. The partition was ultimately annulled by royal decree in 1911. The Swadeshi movement (1905–1908) had limited impact in Assam, though it inspired some, notably Ambikagiri Raychoudhury. From 1905, peasants from East Bengal began settling in the riverine tracts (char) of the Brahmaputra valley, encouraged by the colonial government to boost agricultural production, a mission that proved successful. Between 1905 and 1921, the immigrant population from East Bengal quadrupled. This immigration continued into post-colonial times, leading to the Assam Agitation of 1979.
Assam Legislative Council (1912–1920):
The administrative unit reverted to a Chief Commissioner's Province (Assam plus Sylhet), with an added Legislative Council. The council had 25 members, primarily comprising the Chief Commissioner and 13 nominated members. Other members were elected by local public bodies like municipalities, local boards, landholders, tea planters, and Muslims. As Assam became involved in the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Assam Association gradually transformed into the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee (with 5 seats in AICC) in 1920–21.
Dyarchy (1921–1937):
Under the Government of India Act 1919, the Assam Legislative Council's membership increased to 53, with 33 elected by special constituencies. The council's powers expanded, but the official group, including Europeans and nominated members, retained the most influence.
Assam Legislative Assembly (1937–1947):
Under the Government of India Act 1935, the council was expanded into an Assembly of 108 members, with even greater powers. This period saw the rise of Gopinath Bordoloi and Muhammed Saadullah and their political rivalry.
Post-colonial Assam (1947–present)
In 1979, Assam erupted into the Assam Agitation (or Assam Movement), a popular movement against illegal immigration. Led by AASU and AAGSP, the movement aimed to compel the government to identify, expel, and prevent new illegal immigrants. The agitation was largely non-violent, but there were incidents of severe violence, such as the Nellie massacre, where over 3,000 (unofficially 10,000) Bengali-speaking Muslims were massacred in Nagaon district. The movement concluded in 1985 with the signing of the Assam Accord by agitation leaders and the Government of India. The agitation leaders formed a political party, Asom Gana Parishad, which came to power in the state's Assembly elections of 1985.
In 2012, violent riots occurred between indigenous people, led by NDFB(S), and minority Muslims in BTAD. These were attributed to immigration from Bangladesh, resulting in over 85 deaths and the displacement of 400,000 people.
Assam currently has 35 districts. By population, Nagaon is the largest district, and Dima Hasao is the smallest. In terms of area, Karbi Anglong is the largest district, and Kamrup Metropolitan is the smallest.
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